ther to be Austrians than Hungarians. Since the suppression of the malcontents, and the secure establishment of the Austrian House, they have not played the distinguished part in affairs which their position, and in many instances their colossal fortunes, might lead them to do in England. In many instances, they could not speak the Magyar tongue at all, or at best imperfectly. In the districts where the Slovack or Wallachian population predominates, the magnates, and also the wealthier simple nobles, have that influence which in other countries usually accompanies property. But by the pure Magyars they are looked on with an eye of distrust; and such is their democratical spirit, that wealth and rank render a man of influence a political nullity. This is one of the points in which the Magyar character (which in other respects has much more resemblance to the English than the rest of the continent,) is diametrically opposed to it. Of late years several of the magnates have done enough to merit the confidence of their countrymen, but without securing it. Even Count Széchenyi, whose name is indissolubly bound up with the progress of Hungary, is unhappily, by a very considerable party of his countrymen, looked upon as but a doubtful patriot.

The nobles are only bound in case of war to act as a militia. This rising is called Insurrection, which is considered as an equivalent for exemption from taxation. Particular Insurrection can be levied by the king; the General Insurrection requires an Act of Parliament. The nobleman pays no taxes, no tithes, no tolls, is not subject to have the military quartered on him. He cannot be arrested till his crime has been proved, except in cases of high treason, highway robbery, arson, and adultery in flagranti. He alone has the right of acquiring and possessing land in full property (Jus Terrestrale, capacitas). He governs himself in the parliament by deputies, and still more particularly by the immediate exercise of his franchise in the county where he is settled. (Hungary and Transylvania, vol. i. pp. 398 to 400.) This is the most remarkable part of Hungarian institutions. Each county may be said to form a complete republic, with democratical forms and spirit. Every male noble of the legal age (eighteen

years) has an equal share in making the bye-laws in his own county, and in choosing his own magistrates.

The origin of the nobles is an interesting subject, but belongs to history. Not all the Magyars are nobles; nor are all the nobles Magyars, though no doubt on the whole the feeling of the nobles is Magyar. There are numerous good families of Slovack origin, and among them several who till lately could not speak Magyar. Many of the present nobles are descendants of peasants, who have been ennobled for individual bravery, or for services given on particular occasions. The Wallachian nobles were formerly peasants belonging to the crown domains, who were emancipated by Botskay in the civil dissensions. The Szeut Lazlo Nemessed, in the county of Szala, are celebrated enough for the occasion which made them nobles. The traditional story is this King Ladislaus was once travelling, when the pin came out of the axle-tree; a peasant ran by the side of the carriage and held the wheel fast by applying his finger in the place of the lost pin. At the end of the stage the grateful king rewarded not merely him, but all the other peasants of the village with the diploma of nobility.

With the exception of the military frontier, which has a most peculiar, quite Anti-Hungarian organization, and certain privileged districts before-mentioned, such as Jazygia and Cumania, and the Haiduk towns, Hungary is divided into 52 counties,-46 in Hungary proper, three in Croatia, and three in Slavonia. In the infancy of the kingdom the king's lieutenant (Comes) was seated in a fortified place (castrum, Vár.), and had the civil and military command over the district lying round it, Comitatus, Vármegye, the district round the burgh. In course of ages the boundaries of the counties were changed, in many instances two or more united to form one, and the functions of the Comes totally changed. At present the Obergespann (to use his German name, Comes, Fö Ispány,) represents in the county the regal power. The Hungarians are fond of comparing him to the English Lord Lieutenant. In some counties this dignity is hereditary in certain families, or attached to certain offices; thus the head of the Csáky family is hereditary Obergespann in Zips;

but in the majority he is appointed by the king. The term of office is for life; but it often happens that he resigns, particularly in the Magyar counties, where the democratical spirit makes this situation unpleasant. The Archbishop of Gran is at the same time Obergespann of the county of Gran, the Bishop of Erlan of the county of Eves. In this case, even if not an hereditary Magnate, he retains his seat in the Upper House, and an administrator is appointed in his stead by the king. The installation, in which the new Obergespann or Administrator is solemnly invested with his dignity, forms one of the most brilliant displays of Hungarian provincial life.

The Obergespann is seldom present in his county; as he is always a prelate, magnate, or one of the distinguished simple noble families, and generally engaged in business or pleasure at Vienna or Pesth. Every third year, however, he appears to hold the restauration-the election of the triennial active county magistrates. These are as follows: The Vicegespann (Vice-comes, Al Ispány). The Vicegespann is compared by the Hungarians to the English Sheriff; but his duties embrace a much wider field, as he is in fact the president of the county court of justice. He is, in consequence of the Obergespann's absence, the personage of the most importance in the county, and his character is of the greatest influence with regard to general administration and improvements. He presides not only in the county court, but in the political meetings of the estates, or congregations as they are called. In most counties the press of business requires that a second Vicegespann should bear a share of his labours.

For the purposes of administration each county is divided, according to its extent, into a certain number of circuits (processus, járás), generally from four to six. At the head of each of these is an Oberstuhlrichter (Judex Nobilium, Fö Szolgabiró), assisted by his Vicestuhlrichter (Vice-Judex Nobilium, Al Szolgabiró). The circuits again are divided into smaller districts, each of which is watched over by a Geschworner, (Juratus Assessor, more commonly contracted Jurasser, Esküdt,) who acts as deputy of the Stuhlrichter.

In another branch there is the Upper Notary with his two VOL. XI.-No. XXI.

X

Vice-notaries, who are charged with drawing up all transactions in writing which take place between the authorities, and taking minutes of the resolutions of the Estates. In some counties the Archives are under their care; in others there is a peculiar officer, Archivar, who is not elected by the Estates, but appointed by the Obergespann. The Upper and Vice-Fiscal direct the criminal proceedings, and are the advocates of the peasant. The Upper Tax Collector for the royal treasury, the Upper Tax Collector for the local taxes (Cassa Domestica). Their office is to keep accounts of the moneys paid into their hands by the under collectors. A Rationum Exactor, to check the accounts.

The following are elected for life: The Castellan, who is charged with the management of the county hall and the prisoners. The County Physician, with his subalterns, as surgeons and midwives: he must give advice gratis to the peasants. The Engineer, whose department it is to direct all the regulations of rivers, management of forests, new buildings, etc.; and in urbarial surveys to approve the maps.

All these individuals are salaried by the county, from the Cassa Domestica; but the salaries of the administrative magistrates are almost nominal. The Obergespann has about 1500 fl. C. M. per annum (1501.); the Vicegespann, 600 to 800 fl. (60%. to 801.); a Stuhlrichter, 200 to 300 fl. (20l. to 301.); and a Geschworner 100 fl. (107.) per annum. These salaries by no means suffice to pay for the numerous dinners which each magistrate gives in his circle. These magistrates exercise the legal functions of the county; but the political ones are confined to the Estates, who meet for that purpose at stated times en masse. These assemblies, in Hungarian legal language Congregations, are for the county what the Parliament is for the realm. The Vicegespann convokes the general congregations, which are usually held quarterly, at which it is imperative on the magistrates to appear. Every simple noble of the legal age (eighteen years) has the right to appear and vote. As in the general parliament, every respectably dressed person, though of the unprivileged class, is allowed to witness the proceedings, though of course without a vote. Such a congregation is a grand day for the Hungarians, especially for the smaller proprietors. The hall

of the county-house fills with the Estates, (Karok és Rendek, Status et Ordines). Here you see the prelate and the magnate in no higher capacity than the simple Botskoros noble, so termed from the sandal which they wear in lieu of a boot; the latter in his working costume, with an enormous cudgel in his hand; the richer nobles in the national Hungarian costume, trailing their sabre by their side. Under the presidency of the Vicegespann, sometimes, though rarely, of the Obergespann, the assembly proceeds to business; and what important subjects come within its sphere! Here the Acts of Parliament and royal rescripts are published; the latter in some instances not accepted*. Representations are resolved on, which are to be made to the king; the division of the general taxes among the tax-paying peasants is made; the quantum for the Cassa Domestica determined on; police regulations made, and questions of improvements, such as bridges, roads, etc., settled; petitions received from communes or private individuals; moneys accounted for; the necessities of life-bread and flesh, etc., taxed; the wages of reapers, and sometimes other labourers, such as masons and carpenters, regulated; above all, the county magistrates elected, and instructions resolved on to the deputies, who represent the county in the Lower House of Parliament. The debates which occur on these occasions are sometimes very stormy. The Hungarians have a wonderful talent for public speaking, which is called out and nourished by the numerous occasions for its display. Any one who uses the expression 'it is false,' is liable to a penalty for contempt of the assembly, violata sedes. The fiscal immediately draws up and pre

sents an indictment, which is carried and put into execution. If the expression was addressed to a magistrate, the offender has immediately to pay a fine of 100fl. (107.), in other cases 25fl. (27. 10s.), which, however, if not paid directly, is raised to 100fl. The Particular Congregations are a sort of committee of the whole; their resolutions must be revised and confirmed at the next general congregation.

The full glory of the congregation displays itself at the Restauration. The congregation proclaimed for this purpose

* We witnessed the rejection of a royal rescript, relative to the six weeks' preparatory religious instruction for converts.